Dirk Bertels

What we do in life echoes in eternity

Concepts in Science

Introduction

Popular science books are good since they often try to make sense of a whole spectrum of ideas and concepts, drawing connnections between them - something which most professional scientists have no time for. Note that by popular I mean appealing to a greater audience, not cheap.

Having read some of these books over the years - and taken some notes along the way, it is my aim to order all these notes in a logical fashion so they can be used as a springboard for future additions. Of course, trying to classify these different concepts is quite artifcial since they all are related to, or subsets of, each other. Many of these books touch on topics such as psychology, spirituality and even consciousness - hence their inclusion on this page. Philosophical quotations have been relegated to a page already dedicated to this topic - see philosophy of science.

As you see, no mathematics and equations, just trying to come to grips with basic scientific concepts. The index below contains all the topics accumulated so far. Click on them to take you to that particular topic on this page.

Index

stars and the universe
energy and mass
electromagnetism
gravitation
atoms and electrons
symmetry
mathematics
waves
particles
light and photons (quanta)
matter
mind and matter
fields
quantum
string theory
space and time
holography
chaos
consciousness
psychology, neurons and the brain
spirituality
evolution
biology and cells
molecules
references

stars and the universe

The diagrams we see of our solar system give us a false impression. All distances are scaled in order to be able to see all the planets. Given some very basic information, it is easy to draw some comparisons, the unit of measure I use here is the smarties chocolate sweet which I'm sure most of us are familiar with. So here goes -

If the Earth were the size of a smarties (13 mm diameter), then

  • The Sun would be 150 meters away and have a diameter of 1.4 meters.
  • The Moon would be 0.5 meter away.
  • Pluto would be 6 km away.

If the sun were the size of a smarties (14 mm diameter) then

  • Earth would be 1.5 m away.
  • Pluto would be 60 meters away.
  • The next star would be 420 km away.

If our galaxy, the Milky Way were the size of a smarties, then

  • The next galaxy - M31 - would be 13 cm away
  • The entire observable universe would fit within a sphere just 1 km accross.

Other interesting measurements

  • The universe is about 15 billion years old.
  • There are about 100 billion galaxies in the universe.
  • The Milky Way has about a 100 billion bright stars.
  • The Milky Way is about 100,000 lightyears accross, 30,000 lightyears thick at the center, and 2600 lightyears thick on the outsides.
  • The nearest star is 4.2 lightyears away.
  • We can see about 3000 stars with the naked eye.
  • The solar system orbits the center of our galaxy at 220 km per second.
  • The Earth is 4.5 billion years old.
  • The Earth's speed around the sun is 30 km/s.
  • The Earth's biosphere is proportional in size to the skin of an apple.
  • The Moon's size is 1/4 of the Earth, but 1/80th the Earth's mass.
  • Only one five billionth of the sun's light strikes the earth.

Further comments

  • Interesting how we say the Earth, the Sun and the Moon, but not the Pluto.

  • The Big Bang theory is still in dispute by some eminent scientists, such as John Dobson, the inventor of the Dobsonian telescope. In his words ...
    The Big Bang cosmologists want to get the Universe out of nothing. It's like asking us to believe that nothing made everything out of nothing. But that's not what shows in our physics.

  • Since more distant galaxies recede from us at a faster speed (one argument against a 'Big Bang' starting from an origin), we should maybe call this universe the 'observable universe'.

  • There is proportionality in the distances within our galaxy, expressed as Bode's Law: Given the distance Sun-Earth (149.6 x 106 km) as x, and a doubling sequence {3, 6, 12, 24, 48, ...}, then each successive distance can be calculated with ((2n + 4)/10)x, where n is each successive number from the series. Read more on this here.


Through a variety of fusion processes, stars build hydrogen into helium; helium into carbon; carbon into oxygen and magnesium, and so forth. Indeed, given that the energy released amounts to but a tiny fraction of the mass being shuffled about, we could say that element making is the primary business of stars, and that their light and heat is but a by-product of that process...

T. Ferris: Coming of age in the Milky Way, pp272


... the ultimate energy source in the stars which produces the greatest amount of energy is gravity power.

T. Ferris: Coming of age in the Milky Way, pp280


Speculation about the origin of the universe is an old and notorious human activity; notorious because the cosmogonic [pertaining to the origin and evolution of the universe] speculations that resulted told us more about ourselves than about the universe they claimed to describe.

T. Ferris: Coming of age in the Milky Way, pp349


The recession velocity of any galaxy we observe is proportional to the galaxy's distance. The more distant the galaxy, the faster it moves away from us. At double the distance, the recession velocity will also double. We observe the furthest galaxies approach the speed of light, and the light from galaxies beyond that distance will never reach us.

F. Capra: The Tao of Physics, pp181

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energy and mass

Under proper circumstances any substance can have its mass exploded outwards as energy. A single sheet of paper harnasses an energy that if erupted would cause an explosion greater than that of a large power station.

D. Bodanis: e = mc2

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electromagnetism

As the light beam starts going forward, a little bit of electricity is produced, and as this electricity moves forward it powers up a little bit of magnetism, this in turn powers up another surge of electricity, and so on. The electricity and magnetism keep on leapfrogging over each other in tiny, fast jumps. Maxwell's equations summarizing this insight became known as one of the greatest theoretical achievements of all time.

D. Bodanis: e = mc2


So what would happen if our object was traveling close to the speed of light and a great amount of energy would be added to it? If the speed can't go over the limit, what happens to the extra energy? Experiments with protons in huge powerful accelerators showed that their mass was increasing! At speeds of 99.9997 percent of the speed of light, the protons ended up 430 times bigger than their original size.

D. Bodanis: e = mc2


Maxwell found that the speed with which electromagnetic fields are propagated is equal to the ratio between the electrical force exerted between two electrical charges when at rest and the magnetic force they exert when in motion. As this turned out to be nothing other than the velocity of light, Maxwell concluded that light itself is an electromagnetic field...The velocity of light results from a fundamental constant in the equations that describe the behaviour of electromagnetic fields.

T. Ferris: Coming of age in the Milky Way, pp187


Electromagnetism is the force that holds electrons in their orbits around nuclear particles to make atoms, binds atoms together to form molecules, and ties molecules together to form objects. Every tangible thing, from stars and planets to this page and the eyes that reads it, carries electromagnetism in the fibre of its being.

T. Ferris: Coming of age in the Milky Way, pp193


Maxwell's equations show that electric fields and magnetic fields cannot exist separately. There is indeed only a combined electromagnetic field with an electric component and a magnetic component at right angles to each other.


In electric phenomena, positive charges and negative charges can exist independently of each other. An object can be either positively charged or negatively charged. In magnetic phenomena, the magnetic poles do not exist separately.


Maxwell showed that from his equations you can demonstrate that an oscillating electric field will produce inevitably an oscillating magnetic field, which will in turn produce another oscillating electric field, and so on indefinitely.

Isaac Asimov: Atom

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gravitation

I was sitting in a chair in the patent office at Bern, when all of a sudden a thought occurred to me: "If a person falls freely he will not feel his own weight". I was startled. This simple thought made a deep impression on me. It impelled me toward a theory of gravitation.

Einstein

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atoms and electrons

The electron is a little bubble of wave energy. The electron wave can set up paricularly stable standing vibrations (resonance) - this leads to emmision or absorption of electro-magnetic radiation in atoms and molecules. When an electron falls from an outer to an inner orbit it emits a photon. The wavelength of that photon is determined by the particular orbits between which the electron has made the transition. And that is why a spectrum, which records the wavelengths of photons, reveals the chemical elements that make up the stars or other object the spectroscopist is studying.

T. Ferris: Coming of age in the Milky Way, pp258


The dot over a letter i has many more protons than there are stars in our galaxy. (+100 billion)


The nucleus virtually ties up all the mass of the atom, electrons determine its size.


What happens inside a nucleus is largely independent of what happens to the electrons.


Atomic explosion works by 'rearranging' inside nuclei. Chemical explosion rearranges electrons in their orbits.


In the outer regions of an atom, electrons emit visible light when changing orbit. Inside the nucleus, a proton or neutron making a similar change emits an x-ray with a million times more energy.

The diameter of an atom is approximately 4 . 10-10 meters.
Roughly 1000 atoms span one wavelength of light.
One milimeter is around 2.5 million wavelengths.

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symmetry

Nothing in physics seems so hopeful to me as the idea that it is possible for a theory to have a very high degree of symmetry which is hidden from us in ordinary life.

Weinberg 1977


Weinberg, Glashow, and Salam had been right; we live in a universe of broken symmetries, where at least two of the fundamental forces of nature, electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force, have diverged from a single, more symmetrical parent.

T. Ferris: Coming of age in the Milky Way, pp326

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mathematics

We observe how the very geometry of our world often produces squares... In fact, almost anything that steadily accumulates will turn out to grow in terms of simple squared numbers.

D. Bodanis: e = mc2


Mathematical truth is independent of perception and it is a truth of a very peculiar sort, and is concerned only with symbols. Numbers are logical fictions.

Plato

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waves

Jean B.J.Fourier (Eighteenth century Frenchman) ... developed a mathematical way of converting any pattern, no matter how complex, into a language of simple waves. He also showed how these waveforms could be converted into the original pattern. The equations he developed to convert images into wave forms and back again are known as Fourier transforms.

M. Talbot: The Holographic Universe, 27


Particles moving in wave patterns do not exist in nature. In a water wave, for example, the water particles do not move along with the wave but move in circles as the wave passes by. Similarly, the air particles in a sound wave merely oscillate back and forth, but do not propagate along with the wave. What is transported along the wave is the disturbance causing the wave phenomenon, but not any material particle.

F. Capra: The Tao of Physics, p137


TRANSVERSE waves: Water waves spread outward, and the particles of water move up and down in a direction perpendicular to the direction in which the wave progresses.
LONGITUDINAL waves: Sound waves also spread outward,but the particles of air move parallel with the direction in which the waves progress.

Isaac Asimov: Atom


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particles

Electrons and all other particles are no more substantive or permanent than the form a geyser of water takes as it gushes out of a fountain. They are sustained by a constant influx from the implicate order, and when a particle appears to be destroyed, it is not lost. It has merely enfolded back into the deeper order from which it sprang.

M. Talbot: The Holographic Universe, pp43


... A particle can only be defined in terms of its connections to the whole, and these connections are of a statistical nature - probabilities rather than certainties.

F. Capra: The Tao of Physics, p144


The electromagnetic field can manifest itself as a free field in the form of travelling waves / photons, or it can play the role of a field of force between charged particles. In the latter case, the force manifests itself as the exchange of photons between the interacting particles. The electric repulsion between two electrons, for example, is mediated through these photon exchanges.


Neither of the two electrons feels a force when they approach each other. All they do is interact with the exchanged photons. The repulsive force is nothing but the collective macroscopic effect of these multiple photon exchanges.


... According to quantum field theory, all interactions take place through the exchange of particles. In the case of electromagnetic interactions, the exchanged particles are photons; nucleons, on the other hand, interact through the much stronger nuclear force which manifests itself as the exchange of a new kind of particles called "mesons".

F. Capra: The Tao of Physics, p202

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light and photons (quanta)

Light follows a path along which the time taken is a minimum.


C stands for CELERITAS which is latin for swiftness.


What's hard to comprehend about light is that an object traveling close to the speed of light and emitting a light beam will observe this light beam ahead still at the full speed of C.


The photon, having no charge, is its own antiparticle. Pairs of electrons and positrons can be created spontaneously by photons, and can be made to turn into photons in the reverse process of annihilation.

F. Capra: The Tao of Physics, p168


About 50 atoms can be placed end to end along a single wavelength of light.

Isaac Asimov: Atom

[According to my calculations this should be more in the order of 1000 atoms. Also, it takes about 2.5 million wavelengths to traverse 1 mm of distance.]


It takes only 5 or 6 photons to activate a nerve cell via the human eye and pass a message to the brain. If we could see 10 times more sensitively, then we would see very dim light of a particular colour as a series of intermittent little flashes of equal intensity.


The energy of an atom is precisely related to its wavelength. An atom absorbing a photon provides energy for an electron to move to an orbit further away from the nucleus. When an electrom falls into the old orbit, it emits a photon with the same energy - the energy corresponding to the gap between the orbits.


Note that the light you see 'reflected' doesn't consist of the same photons that reached the object in the first place.


Each element is capable of generating only photons of a few specific frequencies (colours), hence it has a unique spectrum.


The double slit or pinhole experiment referred to below is one of the most intriguing experiments and is worth investigating - there's much information about this experiment on the net. For starters, try Wiki.


When we look at photons on a large scale, the rules are approximated by Light travels in straight lines. But when the space becomes small, such as the pinholes in the double slit experiment, those rules fail. The same holds true for electrons; on a large scale they travel like particles on definite paths, but on a small scale, such as inside an atom, there is no main path - and interference reins.

R. Feynman


A body radiates energy not in a continuous stream, but in discrete bundles called quanta. Each of these bundles of energy carries the amount of energy that is a multiple of its frequency. The higher the frequency, the higher the energy. The equation for calculating the energy of a bundle of, say, light from its frequency is called Planck's Law. The constant that accompishes the conversion is Planck's Constant. Einstein extended this idea for light, whose discrete bundles could knock electrons out of a metal - calling the light quanta photons. However the term photon is often extended to comprise any quanta of the electro-magnetic spectrum.

A wavelength of light is around 4 . 10-7 meters. 1 milimeter contains roughly 2.5 million wavelengths.

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matter

Bohm's analogy to space / matter separation:
A crystal cooled to absolute zero will allow a stream of electrons to pass through it without scattering them. If the temperature is raised, various flaws in the crystal will lose their transparency, and begin to scatter electrons. From an electron's point of view such flaws would appear as pieces of matter floating in a sea of nothingness. But this is not really the case, they are both part of the same fabric, the deeper order of the crystal.

Bohm


When two particles collide with high energies, they generally break into pieces, but these pieces are not smaller than the original particles. They are again particles of the same kind and are created out of the energy of motion (kinetic energy) involved in the collision process. The whole problem of dividing matter is thus resolved in an unexpected sense...[because] this way we can divide matter again and again.

F. Capra: The Tao of Physics, pp67


The inertia of a material object - the object's resistance against being accelerated - is not an intrinsic property of matter, but a measure of its interaction with all the rest of the universe.

Ernest Mach

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mind and matter

Mind and matter are different aspects of the same reality. What we call "matter" is the aspect we apprehend when we look at a person, a plant, or a molecule from the outside; "mind" is the aspect we obtain when we look at the same thing from the inside.

Ervin Laszlo: Science and the Akashic field

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fields

What is an electric field? We don't know. When we discover a new kind of field it seems mysterious. Then we name it, get used to dealing with it and describing its properties, and it no longer seems mysterious. But we still do not know what an electric or a gravitational field really is.

Bohm


Faraday and Maxwell found it more appropriate to say that each charge creates a disturbance, or a condition, in the space around it so that the other charge, when it is present, feels a force. This condition in space which has the potential of producing a force is called a field. It is created by a single charge and it exists whether or not another charge is brought in to feel its effect.

F. Capra: The Tao of Physics, pp47


Electric fields are created by charged bodies and their effects can only be felt by charged bodies. Magnetic fields are produced by charges in motion, i.e., by electric currents, and the magnetic forces resulting from them can be felt by other moving charges.

F. Capra: The Tao of Physics, pp193


Since all motion is relative, every charge can also appear as a current - in a frame of reference where it moves with respect to the observer - and consequently, its electric field can also appear as a magnetic field. In the relativistic formulation of electrodynamics, the two fields are thus unified into a single electromagnetic field.

F. Capra: The Tao of Physics, pp194

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quantum

There are 2 aspects to quantum physics; in a sense it's a bit like dice. There are 2 aspects to dice. There are the individual dice events that occur, and then there are the statistical patterns - like a lot of sevens will occur and not many twelves. Bell's theorem shows that none of these patterns are ever connected faster than light; you will never see a faster than light pattern. But the individual events, the dice falls themselves, must be tight together faster than light.

Nick Herbert: Consciousness and Quantum Reality (interview - Thinking Allowed Productions)

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string theory

String theory postulates that there exists and has existed only a single variety of particle, but that this particle has an infinite number of manifestations - as in the innumerable tunes that may be composed on a single string of Pythagoras's lyre. Thus a single supersymmetric variety of particle shows up in various harmonics as gravitons and gravitini, quarks and squarks, photons and photinos, and so forth. Since, as Gell-Mann noted, "these infinitely many particles all obey a single very beautiful master equation," the theory suggests how maximum complexity could have arisen from maximum simplicity.

T. Ferris: Coming of age in the Milky Way, pp347

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space and time

The most important thing to keep in mind about Einstein's universe is the fantastic stiffness of space - of the rubber sheet if you like...space is 1032 times stiffer than steel...In other words, the enormous but not infinite stiffness of Einstein's space-time tells us that, while space is not infinitely rigid, it is very, very rigid. In fact, odd as it sounds, space is the most rigid stuff in the universe.

Blair


Space is merely a system of relations

Leibniz


Since Einstein, distance is between events, not between things, and thus involves time as well as space. This modern view can not be stated except in terms of differential equations.

Russell

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holography

... holograms also possess a fantastic capacity for information storage. By changing the angle at which the two lasers strike a piece of photographic film, it is possible to record many different images on the same surface. Any image thus recorded can be retrieved simply by illuminating the film with a laser beam possessing the same angle as the original two beams. By employing this method researchers have calculated that a one-inch-square of film can store the same amount of information contained in 50 bibles.

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chaos

The dripping tap whose intervals are timed reveals a graph that shows an infinite order. Successively zooming into the graph will produce likewise pattens.


A curve can twist in such a complex way that it fills a plane. The dimension is fractional between 1 (a line) and 2 (a surface).


An attractor is a region of space, called phase space, which exerts a magnetic appeal for a system, seemingly pulling the system towards it.

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consciousness

Active role of consciousness experiment
People volunteer to have electrical signals recorded at a point on their heads (EEG's). They were asked to flex their right index finger suddenly at various times entirely of their own choosing. What is found is that there is a gradual build-up of recorded electric potential for a full second, or perhaps even up to a second and a half, before the finger is actually flexed. This seems to indicate that the conscious decision process takes over a second in order to act! This may be in contrasted with the much shorter time that it takes to respond to an external signal.

Passive role of consciousness experiment
Patients undergoing brain surgery consented to having electrodes placed at points in their somatosensory cortex. When a stimulus was applied to the skin of these patients, it took about half a second before they were consciously aware of that stimulus, though the patients were not aware of the delay. Touching the corresponding point in the cortex only revealed sensation if touched for more than half a second. Now suppose that the skin is first touched, and then the point in the somatosensory cortex is electrically stimulated about a quarter second after the touching of the skin. The skin touching will not be felt at all --> backwards masking... The conscious perception can be prevented by a later event, provided that the event occurs within about half a second. This tells us that the conscious awareness of such a sensation occurs at something like half a second after the actual event producing that sensation. It would appear that half a second must elapse before consciousness is called in to play; and then well over a second before one's 'willed' response can take effect. ... Perhaps consciousness is, after all, merely a spectator who experiences nothing but an 'action replay' of the whole drama.

R. Penrose: The Emperor's new mind, pp568-569


Consciousness is, after all, the one phenomenon that we know of, according to which time needs to flow at all! The way in which time is treated in modern physics is not essentially different from the way in which space is treated. Yet, according to our perceptions, time does flow...

R. Penrose: The Emperor's new mind, pp574


Bohm believes that consciousness is a more subtle form of matter, and the basis for any relationship between the two lies not in our own level of reality, but deep in the implicate order. Consciousness is present in various degrees of enfoldment and unfoldment in all matter, which is perhaps why plasmas possess some of the traits of living things.

M. Talbot: The Holographic Universe, pp50

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psychology, neurons and the brain

It was known that the electrical communications that take place between the brain's nerve cells, or neurons, do not occur alone. Neurons possess branches like little trees, and when an electrical message reaches the end of one of these branches it radiates outward as does the ripple in a pond.

M. Talbot: The Holographic Universe, pp20


John Von Neumann once calculated that over the course of an average human lifetime, the brain stores something on the order of 2.8 X 1020 bits of information.


We possess Transference of learned skills, i.e. we can write words with our left elbow.


On the brain and hallucination
Konorski conceived of a dynamical system which, he wrote, "can generate perceptions, images and hallucinations ... the mechanism producing hallucinations is built into our brains, but it can be thrown into operation only in some exceptional conditions." Konorski brought together evidence - weak in the 1960s, but overwhelming now - that there are not only afferent connections going from the sense organs to the brain, but 'retro' connections going in the other direction. They provide, Konorski felt, the essential anatomical and physiological means by which hallicunations can be generated.
What then normally prevents this from happening? The crucial factor, Konorski suggested, is the sensory input from the eyes, ears and other sense organs, which normally inhibits any backflow of activity from the highest parts of the cortex to the periphery. But if there is a critical deficiency of input from the sense organs, this will facilitate a backflow, producing hallicunations physiologically and subjectively indistinguishable from perceptions. (There is normally no such reduction of input in conditions of silence or darkness because "off-units" fire up and produce continuous activity).

Oliver Sacks: Musicophelia, pp77

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spirituality

Swedenborg, mystic born in1688, was the Leonardo Da Vinci of his era. He was the leading mathematician in Sweden, and spoke 9 languages...Throughout all of this he meditated regularly, and when he reached middle age, developed the ability to enter deep trances during which he left his body and visited what appeared to him to be heaven...The German philosopher Immanuel Kant wrote an entire book on Swedenborg, entitled Dreams of a Spirit - Seer. According to Swedenborg, the information that arose during the opening of the Book of Lives was recorded in the nervous system of the person's spiritual body. Thus, in order to evoke the life review an "angel" had to examine the individual's entire body "beginning with the fingers of each hand, and proceeding through the whole." ... Dole, who holds degrees from Yale, Oxford, and Harvard, notes that one of the most basic tenets of Swedenborg's thinking is that our universe is constantly created and sustained by two wavelike flows, one from heaven and one coming from our own soul or spirit. "If we put these images together, the resemblance to the hologram is striking," says Sole, "We are constituted by the intersection of two flows - one direct, from the divine, and one indirect, from the divine via our environment. We can view ourselves as interference patterns, because the inflow is a wave phenomenon, and we are where the waves meet."

M. Talbot: The Holographic Universe, pp257


Sri Aurobindo [born 1872 a thinker, political activist, Yogic teacher, and mystic whom Indians revere alongside Gandhi...]. Through meditation, he eventually learned to become, in his own words, "an explorer of the planes of consciousness." One of his most intractable obstacles he had to overcome was to learn how to silence the endless chatter of words and thoughts...To plumb the subtler and more implicate regions of the psyche does indeed require a Bohmian shift of attention. ...


"We fragment things because we exist at a lower vibration of consciousness and reality", says Aurobindo, and it is our propensity [tendency] for fragmentation that keeps us from experiencing the intensity of consciousness, joy, love and delight for existence that are the norm in these higher and more subtle realms.


Just as Bohm believes that it is not possible for disorder to exist in a universe that is ultimately unbroken and whole, Sri Aurobindo believed that the same was true of consciousness ...


But if the cosmos is ultimately ineffable, a farrago of multicoloured vibrations, what are all the forms we perceive? What is physical reality? It is, said Sri Aurobindo, just "a mass of stable light."

M. Talbot: The Holographic Universe, pp264


We must not only cut asunder the snare of the mind and the senses, but flee also from the snare of the thinker, the snare of the theologian and the church-builder, the meshes of the Word and the bondage of the Idea. All these are within us waiting to wall in the spirit with forms; but we must always go beyond, always renounce the lesser for the greater, the Finite for the Infinite; we must be prepared to proceed from illumination to illumination, from experience to experience, from soul-state to soul-state...Nor must we attach ourselves even to the truths we hold most securely, for they are but forms and expressions of the Ineffable [too great for words] who refuses to limit itself to any form or expression.

Sri Aurobindo


Non-action does not mean doing nothing and keeping silent. Let everything be allowed to do what it naturally does, so that its nature will be satisfied.

Cuang-tzu


Zen, being Buddhistic in its essence, is a unique blend of the philosophies and idiosyncrasies of three different cultures. It is a way of life which is typically Japanese, and yet it reflects the mysticism of India, the Taoists' love of naturalness and spontaneity and the thorough pragmatism of the Confucian mind.

F. Capra: The Tao of Physics, pp108


Meditation is the discovery that the point of life is always arrived at in the immediate moment.

Alan Watts


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evolution

Today it is understood that 99% of all the species that have lived on the earth have since died out.

T. Ferris: Coming of age in the Milky Way, pp222


... Because the world is constantly in a state of change, nature favours the varied - a community of predominantly white moths is better off if it contains a few dark moths, against a smoggy day - and the geographically dispersed, those who do not keep all their eggs in one basket.

T. Ferris: Coming of age in the Milky Way, pp238

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biology and cells

The simplest cell contains1011 atoms in very complex structures.


Each chromosome contains a long coil of DNA. If all the chromosomes were unwound, the DNA in just one of our cells would stretch 2 m long.

The finest cells in the retina measure about 2 microns accross. Current household digital cameras have about 7 to 8 microns resolution.

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molecules

Avogadro's law: Equal volumes of all gases contain equal numbers of molecules.
E.g when it takes 0.1 gram of Hydrogen to fill a balloon, it would take about 1.6 grams of oxygen to inflate the balloon to an equal size, but both balloons will contain the same amount of molecules.

Isaac Asimov: Atom


See also Red Dye Example


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references

  • David Bodanis: e = mc2, ISBN: 0-330-39165-8
  • Fritjof Capra: The Tao of Physics, ISBN: 0-553-26379-x
  • Michael Talbot: The Holographic Universe, ISBN: 0-246-13690-1
  • Roger Penrose: The Emperor's new mind, ISBN: 0-19-286198-0
  • Timothy Ferris: Coming of age in the Milky Way, ISBN: 0-09-980050-0
  • D.Blair, G.McNamara: Ripples on a cosmic sea, ISBN: 1-86448-503-5
  • Oliver Sacks: Musicophelia, ISBN: 978-0-330-44436-1
  • Isaac Asimov: Atom, ISBN: 0-452-26834-6
  • Ervin Laszlo: science and the Akashic field, ISBN: 978-1-59477-181-1

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